[27] This then weakens Felixs proposal that a comitia designates an assembly of the universus populus. Render date: 2023-07-16T13:29:49.632Z But this Caesar would go much further than his ancient predecessor: he would really become a king because he would escape from the assassination planned by Cadoudal and his accomplices. The new constitution was ratified in a plebiscite. Wambaugh questioned the prudence of sending military men as negotiators, although she did not doubt their diplomatic skills (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 406). I, Ch. Referendum, however, is a measure submitted by the government to the people for their approval. And so, during the proclamation of the Empire, Napoleon proceeded according to the constitution and scrupulously respecting the written texts. This page was last changed on 6 June 2023, at 18:01. Economically valuable with iron and coal industries, the Saar Basin had been a pivotal territory in power plays between Prussia and France long before the First World War. Representing a nuanced spectrum of conducted and abandoned plebiscites as well as short- and long-term territorial disputes at the intersections of language, economics, religion, paramilitary violence, and gender, these referenda also help to highlight Wambaughs agency and attitudes. "corePageComponentGetUserInfoFromSharedSession": true, For instance, self-determination was neither included in Wilsons Fourteen Points, as Wambaugh frankly admitted (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 11), nor was it originally connected to questions of human rights or the political protection of minorities, except for cultural and linguistic entitlements. These legal differences derived from the fact that Roman law did not recognize an assembly consisting only of one group of people (plebeians in this case) from an assembly consisting of all of the People of Rome. Chaisty, Paul View all Google Scholar citations Gauge the moods of the European people and statesmen as Woodrow Wilson arrived to forge an end to World War I Establishing the Pan-American Association for the Advancement of Women, Catt also visited South America in 1923, including Chile and Peru, and stated that I never did a piece of work which has so interested and stimulated my desires to help as this (Van Voris Reference Van Voris1987, 178). was a sort of return to the sacralised image, emphasised by the exhibition at the salon of Gros painting, the Pestifrs de Jaffa, itself the evocation of the miracle working, future emperor. Accordingly, each plebeian family belonged to the same curia as did its patrician patron. The evidence is not lacking, from the statue of Charlemagne which was to crown the la Trajans column in the Place Vendme to the solemn voyage of the new emperor to Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), in September 1804. Another incentive to select Austria was an Entschliessung [proclamation], issued on September 28, 1920, by the tentative province assembly in Klagenfurt, that promised active support for the Slovene language and culture and guaranteed the protection of minority rights, as enshrined in the Treaty of Saint Germain.Footnote Her assessments of overseas territories and their populations, ranging from Europe to Asia, through an American lens indirectly influenced the bureaucratic conduct of plebiscites to a certain extent throughout the short twentieth century, particularly under the guidance of the LoN and later the United Nations (henceforth UN). With this trip, she somewhat followed the route of the American Field Commission that had been led by Major Sherman Miles and that had gathered data for Professor Archibald Cary Coolidge, prior to the referendum. [27] The principal arguments against his theory are (1) his definition depends on a distinction between assemblies of the populus and of the plebeians, despite the routine denial of the existence of an assembly consisting solely of plebeians after 287 BC; and (2) there are passages from Roman authors which refer to plebeian assemblies as comitia, as opposed to Concilium Plebis. The Plebeian Council and the Conflict of the Orders, Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets, Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback, "The Distinction Between Comitia and Concilium", "Plebeian Tribunes and the Government of Early Rome", Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, article, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plebeian_Council&oldid=1117039250. The Plebeian Council was originally organized on the basis of the Curia but in 471 BC adopted an organizational system based on residential districts or tribes. With remarkable foresight, she anticipated Cold War atmospheres and evermore pressing subjects of migratory flows and movements on a global scale that echo past the short twentieth century. of this land, and whose cultures are among the oldest continuing in human history. 12 Wambaugh, Frontiers by Plebiscite, SWP1, box 2, folder 3, 3. By this means, an act of the legislature can be overturned in a kind of popular veto. the Landtag bill, as cited in Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 204n4. Feature Flags: { France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. Within the context of geographic demarcations, aspects of citizenship, national belonging or affiliation, and minority rights, palpably, were paramount. Particularly the SA and SS exercised a regime of harassment, and in her responsibility as LoN employee Wambaugh critically reflected that approximately 1,500 of the 10,000 SS corps in this area were female (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 213). It is based on the principle that officeholders are agents of the popular will and should, therefore, be constantly subject to its control. However, the content of the text of An XII repeated many rules from the old Capetian monarchy (notably those referring to the imperial succession and the return of the Salic law which excluded women and their descendants perpetually from the succession). Plebiscites in Australian History - ABC News The point of using Lorem Ipsum is that it has a more-or-less normal distribution of letters, as opposed to using 'Content here, content here', making it look like readable English. The referendum, the other form of direct democracy, has a very different history. Castlereagh: Life & Legacy [6] In 492 BC, the office of Tribune was acknowledged by the patricians, thereby creating a legitimate assembly of plebeians (Concilium Plebis). Lex Hortensia (287 BC), which made all Roman citizens subject to the laws created by the Plebeian Council. Over the next 40 years, there were 48 more statehood bills presented. His was an almost imperialist speech, whose biblical and belittling language characterized Slovenes as Verfhrte [seduced ones], who had fallen prey to Yugoslav promises and sins and should be educated in Germandom as quickly as possible, preferably within one generation.Footnote My own "Fighting without Arms: The Defense of German Interests in Schleswig, East . Stay up to date with the biggest stories of the day with ANC's 'Dateline Philippines' (15 July 2023) | ABS-CBN News Channel, Philippines She herself, quite metaphorically, trespassed frontiers as a female employee of the LoN and later UN, forging a somewhat untypical career in an environment traditionally dominated by masculinities and male prerogatives. [18] Thus, the Plebeian Council became independent of the patrician aristocracy in everything but name. Introduction to the debate: do referendums enhance or threaten democracy? Several plebiscites were held in disputed territories to fulfil Woodrow Wilson's idea of national self-determination, and to allow certain European populations to decide which country they wanted to be a part of. Ad to vote yes for the Treaty of Lisbon, by the Irish government, in 2009. Whether you are a private individual or a company, if you are a tax payer in France, you get tax benefits on donations to the Fondation Napolon. Whereas this nationalist stand by the episcopate was not shared by many priests and lower clergy, it had a decisive effect, most potently perhaps on female worshippers. Similar to American westward expansion, where the frontier symbolized an obstacle to be overcome for better prospects and the pursuit of happiness (it might be added, at the expense of native peoples, indigenous to the soil in question), Central European borderlines for her required a stitching up to restore cultural and economic entities that had developed over centuries within geographically determined boundaries. Most candidates had a good knowledge of the use of plebiscites in the peace settlement, 1919 - 1920. [21], In the Tribal system, the Council of the Plebeians elected Tribunes of the Plebs, who acted as spokespeople for the plebeian citizens. Advisory - meaning the result of the vote is only to help the government make the final choice. She continued to explain further how Carinthian peasant women (with a Slovene background) consulted their priests, most of whom were rather strong supporters of the Slovene national cause, only after they had ticked their ballot papers for remaining with Austria: But even the peasant women were sufficiently independent to vote against their priests advice, for a Slav told me that many of the women had come to the priests for absolution for having voted for Austria.Footnote Hawaii's plebiscites In 1919, Jonah Khi Kalanianaole presented a statehood bill for Hawaii. At the same time, individual women, usually of aristocratic descent, used charitable and philanthropic avenues to enforce a yes for Germany at the ballot. [8] Its divisions were not ethnic (as the divisions of the Curia were), but rather geographical. 3 UCLES 2020 0977/11/O/N/20 [Turn over 5 The Versailles settlement had a range of consequences. German Plebiscite Territories. Plutarch and Dionysus of Helicarnassus believed that these curiae were subdivisions of the three Romulean Tribes. [4] These categories are based on Tilly's Dimensions of Democratization. Mothers as procreators and nurturing protectors of, preferably male, offspring for future military service, who might be drafted by the adversary behind enemy lines, were explicitly targeted in plebiscites, such as the Carinthian one in 1920. [4] (b) Why were the French dissatisfied with the peace settlement? Since it based itself of the forms of legitimacy derived from the Revolution, the Empire could not be stripped of its historical roots, above all in a society in which history was the fundamental pillar of all thought. A History of Plebiscites in the Philippines | Arab News As a female emissary of the LoN, Wambaugh was especially conscious of the gendered prisms of referenda-based rights to self-determination. Wambaugh detailed further that the so-called Meldekarten (police records of citizens, settling in a particular commune or county) were subsuming entire families (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 235n97). Prefects, cohorts, consuls, codes, etc., all show the same appeal to antiquity. Wambaugh, again, relied almost uncritically on Wuttes work and used the term Windisch herself, comparing it to Wasserpolnisch (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 213), spoken in Upper Silesia. Little could she know how momentous and spot-on this statement should become in the twenty-first century. Already at the Landtagssitzung [province assembly] on November 25, 1920, he detailed his plans for the Germanification of Slovene-speaking people by means of the schooling system and the church. Accordingly, plebiscites were a concomitant of the spreading of universal or common suffrage and the emergence of nation-states in the western hemisphere. With her alternative trajectory to ambassadorial arenas, Wambaugh could negotiate and conquer political terrain as a non-governmental attach for the LoN and its transnational infrastructure. In military and non-military realms, a female emissary or even ambassador signified disrespect for the host nation in question. People may think that the free ideas sketched out here are simply intellectual and anachronistic. Like the initiative and referendum, recall originated in Switzerland, where it was made applicable to the entire legislature as well as to individual officials. This narrative, it must be remembered, was composed within the tapestry of the Red Scare in the American 1920s and the fabric of the tribal twenties (Higham Reference Higham1955, 264299). [1] [2] The Plebeian Council usually met in the well of the Comitium and could only be convoked by the tribune of the plebs. 1, Art. In the same oeuvre, she narrated further on self-determination in Wilsonian and Allied terms that were used quite elastically. Subsequently, she moved to Saarbrcken for seven months in her role as a technical adviser and deputy member of the Plebiscite Commission (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, vi). 1. Transicin y democracia plebiscitaria (Uruguay 1980: Democratic transition and plebiscitarian democracy), Atado y mal atado: El suicidio institucional del franquismo y el surgimiento de la democracia (Tied but not Well Tied: Francoism's Institutional Suicide and the Advent of Democracy), Domination and The Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, Preempting democracy: the case of Belarus, Why Governments and Parties Manipulate Elections: Theory, Practice, and Implications, Franco: crnica de un tiempo. There is another kind of referendum, called the plebiscite (from a Latin term meaning decree of the people), whereby questions or issues are submitted to the vote of the people. This "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" was the original Plebeian Council,[4] which elected the plebeian Tribunes and Aediles,[7] and passed legislation (plebiscita) that applied only to the plebeians. His theory supposes that a concilium denotes an exclusive assembly which included only a part of the universus populus, whereas a comitia designates a meeting of a whole universus populus. Amidst these developments, Wambaugh, again, attained an exceptional status, because she represented gender interests inside the official channels, whereas most other female campaigners subscribed to para-official initiatives, running analogue to the LoN with occasional interfaces (Miller Reference Miller1994). Plebiscites have continued in that form and have been used principally by totalitarian regimes seeking an ersatz legitimacy through voting consent after the fact, after an action has been completed. Tullius divided the city into four geographical districts, each encompassing a single tribe. According to the intellectual historian Quentin Skinner, the role and profile to be fulfilled by such an innovating ideologist is to legitimate a new range of social actions which, in terms of the existing ways of applying the moral vocabulary prevailing in his society, are currently regarded as in some way untoward or illegitimate (Skinner Reference Skinner1974, 294). [20] Close relations between the plebeian tribunes and the senate meant that the senate could still exercise a great degree of control over the Plebeian Council. He also visited Leibach in his efforts of Americanizing Mittel Europa and lamented that Kun, plentifully supplied with Bolshevik money, was preaching the gospel of a new revolt (Creel Reference Creel1920, 424). Here, Napoleon took much from Roman style. After the partial usurpation of these borderlands and the Carinthian capital Klagenfurt/Celovec by forces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (henceforth SCS) at the end of the First World War, a plebiscite, commissioned at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and by the Treaty of Saint Germain, was held on October 10, 1920, with 59.04% (22,025 votes; approximately half of which were speaking Slovene) of the Carinthian constituents opting for Austria (Gullberg Reference Gullberg2000; Weimann Reference Weimann, Konrad and Maderthaner2008; Rvsz Reference Rvsz2016). All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. 17 December 2021. The wives of miners, for instance, were invited by mayors of German cities as heroic victims of a despotic rule, and festivals and military parades were held in their honor (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 110). However, she insisted on diminishing the German armoury to ensure world peace. https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Plebiscites. Meaning of plebiscite in English plebiscite noun formal us / pleb..sat / uk / pleb..st / Add to word list a referendum SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases Elections absentee absentee ballot absentee vote absentee voter absentee voting entrance poll exit poll first-past-the-post flip franchise proportional representation proxy This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options. In the Saar plebiscite, women were eligible to vote, but, unlike in the Klagenfurt Basin, the conscription of sons or the lack thereof as a topic to win plebiscite votes was not openly articulated, due to Hitler Germany preparing and channelling resources for war. Some scholars have found reason in believing that the Concilium Plebis became the Comitia Tributa in 339 or 287 BC. The daughter of Eugene Wambaugh, a Harvard law professor, Sarah Wambaugh was educated at Radcliffe College, graduating in 1902. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional. It was developed in Switzerland in the mid-nineteenth century to . In the as it later turned out vain hope that the position of the diocese and Catholic Church could be strengthened in the Third Reich, six bishops, amongst them Bornewasser, even distributed a declaration in the Cologne church bulletin to support Germany after the Versailler Gewaltfrieden [Versailles peace by force],Footnote More importantly, adjoined to the decree announcing the plebiscite was a manifesto by Napoleon III who knew he was very ill which stated: [] by voting yes on your ballot, you will ward off the threat of revolution, you will put freedom on a solid footing, and you will make it easier, in the future, for the crown to pass to my son (quoted by Jean-Claude Yon, Le Second Empire, Armand Colin, 2004, p. 75). Yet the term self-determination is pivotal in all her writings and reoccurs in practically every analysis of plebiscites, be they official or irregular. Plebiscite Territories of Germany under the League of Nations 21 Indeed, Pershings reports reflected Wambaughs impact in the end, documenting cases of intimidation, especially of female residents, with many of the women weeping as they related stories of losing husbands, sons, or relatives.Footnote Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Association for the Study of Nationalities. Plebiscites in post-Versailles Europe - Articles - Institute of Find out more. Lex Ogulnia (300 BC), which entitled plebeian citizens to one half of the priesthoods in the. Signed at Ancon, October 20, 1883, as reprinted in Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1920, 993. All three have in common the fact that, at some point or other, the . . hasContentIssue false, The Author(s), 2021. The French monarchy itself developed and completed the concept of divine right from customary practices, practices which were grouped in a well-established corpus and recognised as the kingdoms fundamental laws. The plebiscites held after 1793, however, in areas including Belgium and the Rhineland, were accompanied by the intimidation of voters in order to assure decisions desired by the French government. Following up on this petition, Wambaugh also contacted General Pershing directly about individual women, Adriana Alfaro and Elvira Oviedo, both jailed for three hours for having dared to speak to the Peruvian side.Footnote In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. 14 about the necessity of a plebiscite in West Hungary, she emphasized, The transfer of the area to Austria was now growing more attractive to the Allies. [1] Others define it as the opposite. Wambaugh underlined this in Plebiscites since the World War with a Peruvian poster that showed a peasant woman with an infant in her arms, urging her son to do his deber de patriota votando por el Peru [duty as a patriot by voting for Peru] (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 363). [4] Their removal from the electoral process accounted for much of the large drop in invalid and negative votes,[citation needed] which fell from over five million in 1934 to barely half a million in 1936. For him, the Slavophiles, adhering to Yugoslavia, were doomed by refusing this amelioration in the German family. Thereafter, she continued to stay there as an assistant for the next four years. Eleven years earlier, with the decapitation of the king, the national razor had deconsacrated the monarchy. Thus, she was involved in the attempted Tacna-Arica plebiscite of 192526 as a technical advisor to the Peruvian government, in the Saar plebiscite of 193435 as one of three committee experts of the LoN to draft the plebiscite regulations and as a deputy member of the plebiscite commission, in the Greek elections of 194546, where she counselled the UN mission, and in the Indian plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir of 1949. Each curia even had its own festivals, gods, and religious rites. When the German armies occupied Northern France during this war, they deliberately flooded the coal mines there, both to cut off potential spy routes and to cause essential damage to this infrastructure.